The week ahead

Dear Gustav and Thandi,

Thanks for posting your proposals. Please go to your original texts to view my comments.

In general, it is time to start refining your research into the "discourses" you are analysing. For Dusklands, these have to do with imperial and colonial language; for Black Hamlet, gaining a detailed knowledge of the early language of psychoanalysis, and its deployment in the service of (or against) racial science will be key.

We all need to have read Black Hamlet for our meeting next Monday. There is an article by Adam Sitze on Google drive which explores the question of scapegoating in careful detail. It is a very sophisticated philosophical set of reflections. If you are interested in the links between Black Hamlet and the Rex v Mbombela court case, Sitze offers the details of the story in a section of his article. You may wish to follow up this element of his discussion.

I look forward to Thandi's presentation on Black Hamlet on Monday.

Have a great week.

Lannie

An exploration into the discourses used within J. M. Coetzee's "Dusklands"

Discourse within literature is the framework for how the main speaker or protagonist is able to communicate and what they are able to communicate. The standard definition of discourse is: written or spoken communication or debate; although it is more suitable to understand is as a framework which shapes social life and is centred on events. Discourse, which comes in various forms, is heavily reliant on what is desired, which is usually political and sexual in nature, and this shapes what the main speaker of protagonist is allowed to play.  Using J.M. Coetzee’s, Dusklands, an exploration into how discourse shapes what a protagonist I sable to say will be conducted.

Could you offer some references here for your definitions of "discourse"? Foucault's reflections on the term are distinct from earlier accepted definitions ... it is worth researching this closely. 
 
It is required that an understanding of discourse is achieved and then an analysis of the discourse within, Dusklands, can be done.  The novel consists of two novellas, with each novella having its own “protagonist”: Eugene Dawn in, “The Vietnam Project” (novella one), and Jacobus Coetzee in, “The Narrative of Jacobus Coetzee” (novella two). Both characters are in two different time periods, with Eugene present in 20th century American imperialism and Jacobus present in 18th century Dutch colonialism with each having their own political agenda. With novel containing two protagonists and two stories, exploring the discourse within the book can be done through three fundamental questions:

Here I feel that your comments are a little undeveloped. How would you desribe the "desires" of each protagonist/ narrator? Which "discourses" are at play here? (the obvious ones are American imperialism, and  Dutch colonialist at the Cape. There are more!). 

I would like to know much more here about the content of the two narratives. The notion of parody, which you raise in the summary of Atwell's article, is clearly key ... Why would Coetzee play with historical records in this "metafictional" mode? What is the point? 

1. While the discourse is within the realm of desire, is it the same for both characters?

2. How does the discourse shape what
each character is able to say and not say?

3. Is using two characters able to somehow to transcend these limitations? And if so, how is this achieved?

In order to answer these questions, reading and exploring the discourse within, Dusklands, will not be enough. In order to properly explore these questions, I will consult David Attwell’s, The labyrinth of my history, as well as Derek Attridge’s, Ethical Modernism: Servants as Others in J.M. Coetzee’s Early Fiction.

David Attwell’s: The labyrinth of my history
Dusklands deals with the violence of colonialism and the legacy it leaves behind with its heirs and does so by critiquing colonialism and imperialism through the use of parody. Attwell argues that the novel is a break from the framework of colonialism and its intended discourse, and he is able to do this by giving the two protagonists a reflective consciousness: an ontological-metaphysical approach. The ontological-metaphysical aspects of his characters allow for the questioning of being and make the characters transparent, drawing the reader in. With both Eugene Dawn in “The Vietnam Project” (novella one) and Jacobus Coetzee in “The Narrative of Jacobus Coetzee” (novella 2) committing horrible acts against humanity, their character allow for the reader to be drawn into the events of their actions. With events being so crucial to understanding discourse, it is apparent that bringing the reader into the literature is important in determining what the characters are able and unable to say. This drawing in of the reader is further explored by Derek Attridge in, Ethical Modernism: Servants as Others in J.M. Coetzee’s Early Fiction.

Derek Attridge:  Ethical Modernism: Servants as Others in J.M. Coetzee’s Early Fiction
Duslkands focuses on inviting the reader ethically. There is an emphasis on the ‘event’, where discourse shapes social life. Coetzee uses an event, being the parody of events, to draw the reader in ethically. Coetzee has given the protagonists of the novel the ability to communicate to the reader through their actions within events and their reflections regarding events. By juxtaposing American imperialism and Dutch colonialism, and essentially juxtaposing the actions of the protagonist and those characters who are estranged, seen as the “other”, he is able to draw in the reader ethically and communicate with the reader beyond conventional discourse.

Through the use of these questions regarding discourse and the works of Atwell and Attridge, exploration into the discourse used within Coetzee’s, Dusklands, and how it shapes what the protagonists or main speaker says, can be done.

Works I intend on using:

These are useful readings as a starting point for your project, but there are many more. I think it would be useful to select particular passages from each narrative for close reading. 
 
Coetzee, J. M. Dusklands. Reprint, ed. Michigan: Penguin Books, 1996.

Attridge, Derek. “Ethical Modernism: Servants as Others in J. M. Coetzee’s Early Fiction.” Poetics Today, 25:4 (2004): 553-671.

Attwell, David. “’The labyrinth of my history’: J. M. Coetzee’s Dusklands.” Novel: A Forum on Fiction, 1 (1991): 7-32.

Black Hamlet by Wulf Sachs - Essay

A psychological insight into the life of a Black Hamlet

Black Hamlet by Wulf Sachs is the story of the relationship between Sachs and a Manyika healer-diviner, John Chavafambira, who moved from Zimbabwe to South Africa in the 1920s. First published in 1937, the story encounters the “complexities of the encounter [repetition?] between black and white” and the tragedies of the poor trying to scrape together a living “in the new urban centres of southern Africa” as segregation becomes more ingrained (Heald 294).

John tells his story to someone else [to Sachs?]. His story is in the end being told through the interpretation or experience of someone else. John's story was being told through sessions of “free associations” and his reaction to these associations would also be analysed (Sachs 72). The term free association is a psychological term which is when clients of a psychologist speak freely as things come to mind without self-censorship (Corey 67). Clients speak about “their feelings, experiences, associations, memories, and fantasies” to the psychologist which is then analysed" (Corey 67). The introduction to the book by Jacqueline Rose includes some sound scholarly commentary on psychoanalytic methods. These are distinct from the methods of general psychology, and it is worth researching them in depth. An excellent introduction to literary approaches to psychoanalysis is Kaja Silverman's "The Subject of Semiotics". (Our library has a copy).

John has the power of telling his story as he wishes through 'free association' but his power is limited to the setting he is in when telling his story. John also has the trust that his story is being told truthfully because he is not writing his own story. Given the above, I would like to analyse the power the Sachs has in the psychological setting and the effect thereof on John's story and how this either limits or shapes him as a character. Good  - this is a book which records both the necessity and the pitfalls of discursive authority - here the authority of a man who is writer, doctor, and psychoanalyst - a representative of what Sachs himself terms "white medicine"?

Sachs starts John's story at an interesting place when “he had left his native kraal for the Union of South Africa” (76). Sachs explains that his was a significant part to start at because it was the “turning point of [John's] life” (77). Sachs analysed the starting point of John's story stating the reason for starting there but Sachs is also in control as to making the choice to start the story at that point. Here I feel Sachs holds the power over John's story. Through this John is allowed to tell his story and develop his story.

Sachs analyses John from a western point of view, [WHICH] this may also have an influence on how John is portrayed and written about. Sachs uses what, Saul Dubow calls, the Hamlet syndrome to analyse John (Dubow 542). By using this, Sachs argues that John “suffers from a tragic inability to cope with the rational demands of modern western life” (Dubow 542).

John’s “inability to cope” with western demands links back to colonialism (Dubow 542). Sachs uses a western understanding of John's culture and seems to come with an “all knowing” understanding of life to analyse a “native” in South Africa about his life. This can already lead to prejudice and preconceived ideas about life that everyone has to adhere to.

In my essay I would like to focus and try to answer the following questions:

How much control does John hold in telling his own story?

Can Sachs manipulate John's story for his own benefit?

Does the language of the text benefit John or Sachs or both of them?

I still have to look for a text to analyse from Black Hamlet.

There are a number of fine articles about this text available. Do have a look on the Google Drive, where I have posted a few. I recommend Rose's introduction as a starting point. Try to avoid background resources on psychology that are not specifically literary in approach. Perhaps it would be useful to start by trying to understand the concept of "Hamletism" as elucidated towards the end of Sach's narrative. What is "Hamletism" and in what ways does Sachs feel that this diagnosis "fits" Chavafambira's life?   

Works Cited:

Corey, Gerald. Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy (SA Edition). UK:

Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, Inc, 2014. Print.

Dubow, Saul. “Wulf Sachs's Black Hamlet: A Case of 'Psychic Vivisection'?” African Affairs 92.369

(1993): 519-556. JSTOR. Web. 23 March 2016.

Heald, Suzette. “Review.” African Affairs 96.383 (Apr. 1997): 293-295. JSTOR. Web. 23 March

2016.

Sachs, Wulf. Black Hamlet. USA: The John Hopkins University Press, 1996. Print.

COURSE REQUIREMENTS

The composition of the final mark:

This will be composed of a global percentage grade in each of the following categories:

1)       Blog (weekly):                             (30%).

2)      Class presentations :                   (20%)

In these presentations, you will take charge of a discussion of a particular text. Your presentation will help to show the links between one of the primary texts and the blog postings on that particular topic.

3)      Long essay:                                  (50%)

You will submit an essay of between 5000 and 6000 words at the end of Term 4. The proposal for your essay (1 – 2 pages) is to be submitted before the end of Term 3.

DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:

1)      BLOG

Each week, one person will take responsibility for posting a substantial comment under the “Article summaries”, and one person will be responsible for the “Book reviews” category.

The “Gossip column” is open – contribute whenever you have something to add.

We will allocate the topics in class so that there isn’t a rush on a particular one.

Everyone else must have read the text as well, in order to be able to respond adequately to the posting.

The designated people who are posting to the blog must do so by 5 pm on evening.

Classmates must respond to the postings by 11 am on Friday morning. (You can also respond to other responders, of course, as well as to the original post). You obviously do not need to “respond” to your own post.

Each student needs to make a minimum of three postings in each category over the entire duration of the course (that is to say - 9 postings altogether). If you make more than these, your best grades will be chosen. Working consistently on the blog will obviously give you a significant advantage, both in terms of course credits, but also in terms of material that will help you develop your final essay.

Please note: these deadlines are absolute. Late contributions won’t be credited. Please factor in the potential for technological hazards. 

Evaluation system for the blog:

The blog will not be marked in detail, but each contribution will be graded, according to the system below.

5 –       The contribution is on time, accurate, and complete. More than this, it is well written, inspired, and thoughtful. It exceeds expectation.

4 –       The contribution is on time, accurate, and reasonably complete. It is well written and does a good job of representing the text accurately.

3 –       The contribution is submitted on time, but offers superficial, basic coverage of the text. Alternatively, potentially good insights are buried in careless or hasty expression.

0 –       The contribution is not submitted on time. Alternatively it is submitted, but offers no sensible engagement with the given texts, or the writing is incomprehensible.

Requirements for blog posts:

There are four different categories of posts:

1)   Article summaries ( + - 300 - 600 words).

Here, the writer will summarize the main points or central argument of an academic article. These posts must be formally written, and properly referenced. They will be judged on the accuracy and clarity with which key issues raised by the text are explained.

We will use these summaries for class discussion, and consider what the article reveals about the discourses at work in a particular text. What are these discourses? How do they limit what can be said in the primary text?  

2)   Book reviews or Movie reviews.  (300 – 600 words).

These posts comment on the primary texts under discussion. (These are: Woman and Labour, “A Policy in Favour of Protection”, “The Buddhist Priest’s Wife”, Manly Pursuits, Black Hamlet, Journey to the Kalahari, Soul of the White Ant, and Dusklands.)

Quote and analyze by all means, although the register need not be highly academic. A broad point of focus will be specified in the course outline.

You should try to both explain the text’s key concerns, and illustrate these briefly by means of an example. Again, we will use these in class to consider how the book reflects the discourses of the day.

3)   Gossip column/Trivia section.  (A paragraph or two).

These posts can be written in a less formal, more journalistic style, and can include any content of interest, including pictures, anecdotes, or “society-page” style gossip, or internet links.

Here you can comment on any of the historical figures in the texts you are reading, on the authors themselves, or on any relevant aspect of their lives and times – people they were reading, people they knew, loved or hated, etc.

I will make suggestions for each week, but you are encouraged to pursue your own obsessions that may arise from the texts.  You are not limited here to a discussion of characters – you might want to do research into a scientific discovery, a popular idea, or a developing technology (an example of this would be the changes in photographic technology in Manly Pursuits, or the meditations on weaponry and war technologies in Dusklands).

This posting can be as “chatty” and entertaining as suits your taste. Feel free to speculate on the motives or feelings of your characters, or to explore their friendships and influences. The ultimate point of this column is to help you understand how the discussions of the day feed into the writing and shape the limits of what can be said. But don’t feel limited by this broader concern – indulge your interests, and go into as much detail as pleases you, however meaningless it seems.

4)      Responses to the Wednesday Posts:

 ·         Each student must comment at least twice in each week.

·         You can either comment on both posts, or you can direct questions or comments to the author of a particular post, and then respond further to whatever answers may come.  

·         Everyone should check the blog at least once a day between Wednesday and Friday. I will gladly credit discussions that go past the weekly deadline, as long as the first two posts come in before the Friday deadline. 

-  Please be aware that your responses will be credited, as well as your posts.

You can, of course, post as often as you like. However the the minimum requirements are:

·            3 postings of “Article summaries” per student throughout the course.

·            3 “Book reviews” in which you comment on the primary texts.

·            3 postings towards the “Gossip column” per student.

If you make more than the required number of posts, the best grades will be used in calculating the final mark.

Eugene Marais' "The Soul of the Ape": A review of Chapter 5: Addiction and Depression

Eugene Marais’, The Soul of the Ape, holds an interesting chapter titled, Addiction and Depression, in which he discusses addiction to narcotics, which he calls poisons, and how depression could be linked to the cause of this addiction within the Chacma. He examines the Chacma’s addiction to certain fruit and draws comparisons to the phenomenon of addiction among humans. How he draws this comparison is definitely worth exploring, and the language which he uses within this chapter also differs from his other chapters, and the change in writing is quite fascinating.   

The Soul of the Ape, is a document of the observation of the Chacma baboons in the Northern Transvaal’s Waterberg over a period of 3 years by Marais, and is written in the form of various essays. Eugene’s manner of writing is simply exceptional, transforming a scientific undertaking, into a wonderful narrative which depicts the relationship he shared with a group of baboons as their observer. His writing is both captivating and shows his intensive study of the group’s behaviour. In the fifth chapter, “Addiction and Depression”, his manner of writing changes somewhat compared to other chapters, and he essentially makes the language of the chapter equally more complex and vulnerable. It is this change of writing that is so interesting and which potentially reveals more about his own addiction to morphine than in his previous chapters.

Unlike in his other chapters, he focuses more on the human component of addiction and how it comes about. A substance used for the purpose of intoxication, or as Marais referred to them as, “poisons”, were essentially used for the, “purpose of creating euphoria”, in order to alleviate the user of mental or emotional pain (101).  Marais continues to comment on the use of ‘poisons’ by humans and their leading to addiction, throughout the entirety of the chapter, paying very little attention to the chacma which he is studying. When he does speak of the chacma however, his language is fused with fascination behind the baboons’ ability to get addicted to certain fruit, alcohol and tobacco. What he does presume is that the chacma is in, “some degree liable to the same quality of suffering which is undoubtedly an attribute of human consciousness”, as chacma bound in captivity had more of a disposition to form addictions and addictive habits (Marais 113).

While it would make sense to contrast and compare the behaviour of chacma and their addiction forming capabilities to those of humans and their addiction, Marais takes it further and discusses Hesperian Depression within humans and within the chacma. It is within this comparison of depression among the two species where Marais uses the analogy of the progression of the day to explain how depression is, “tidal in character” (Marais 114). He beautifully explains depression as being at it’s, “lowest ebb” at sunrise or during early morning and it being influence being strongest, it’s, “highest flow”, being at the setting of the sun (Marais 114). Marais, only as he could, draws beautifully on the progression of the day, of light turning into dark, to evaluate and describe the manner in which depression works. It is difficult to read this chapter and not feel Marais’ association with the chacma; he did, after all, suffer from depression and an addiction to morphine and that struggle which he endured, is displayed by his subjects and is given form by his writing.

While his theories may not have been perfect, his writing of this chapter is absolutely wonderful. The chapter is quite dense and complex holding many ideas and thoughts, which requires the reader to unpack the chapter through multiple rereading’s of the chapter and book itself. Exceptionally well written, engaging and representing various new ideas about the chacma, the chapter, “Addiction and Depression”, is one of eleven chapters to truly captivate the reader.

     

Work cited

Marais, Eugene and Robert Ardrey. “Addiction and Depression.” The Soul of the Ape. Ed. Eugene Marais. Cape Town: Human & Rousseau, 2006. 101-120. Print.

Daswa: Witchcraft vs Faith

Benedict Daswa (16 June 1946-2 February 1990) was a South African school teacher and principal. He and his family belonged to a tribe called Lemba tribe in rural Venda, which follows many Jewish customs.

At the age of 17 he converted to Catholicism after being introduced to the faith when he visited a friend in Johannesburg. After taking up the faith he decided to teach Catholicism to young members of his community.

Thunderstorms and lightning struck the area of his tribe in November 1989 going on to January 1990, causing a group of local community leaders to think that the lightning occurred because of magic. The leaders collected R5 from all community members to pay for a “sangoma” (a traditional healer) who would find the “witch” responsible for the thunder and lightning storms. Daswa believed that the storms were a natural phenomena and said that a traditional healer constituted witchcraft and this went against his faith and beliefs. He, thus, refused to pay the money for the traditional healer.

Members of the community were offended by his decision. On the evening of February 2, 1990, Daswa was driving home alone after taking his sister-in-law and her son to the doctor. He came across tree logs that blocked the road. Daswa got out of the car to investigate when a mob of people came up to him and started to beat and stone him. He ran away but was soon trapped, his final words were “God, into your hands, receive my spirit” before he was hit over the head with a “knobkerrie”.

After his death, the Catholic Church viewed him as a martyr for his faith and his martyrdom was confirmed in 2015 and on September, 13, 2015 he was beatified in Limpopo. He is now known as Blessed Benedict Daswa in the Catholic Church.

Further Reading:

Benedict Daswa Archive

http://www.scross.co.za/category/benedict-daswa/

Benedict Daswa – A Saint for South Africa

http://benedictdaswa.org.za/

A Reasonable Man

What is Reasonable?

Image from Wikipedia

A Reasonable Man (1999) features around a young black man's conviction of murder and a white lawyer trying to come to terms with the past. Sipho, played by Loyiso Gxwala, is an inhabitant of Zululand in KZN. He kills a one year old child in his village thinking it is a “Tikoloshe” (an evil spirit). Under the South African laws, Sipho is seen as a murderer and convicted of murder. His lawyer, Sean, tries to plead his case that the murder was not intent but the belief that Sipho was killing an evil spirit.

The movie directed and written by Gavin Hood is a low budget feature film, but this does not under value the movie in any sort of way. The movie deals not only with cultural differences and beliefs in a diverse country like South Africa but also the psychological damages of war on an individual.

Hood stars as the lawyer who tries to proof innocence in Sipho. He gives a convincing performance as someone in psychological pain, although you forget throughout the movie that he, himself killed a child during the war, where Sipho killed a child thinking it was an evil spirit. The movie could have explored the idea of running the story of Sean and Sipho parallel so that the viewers see the similarities in their stories and the psychological trauma they both suffer. Gxwala gives a convincing performance of a young man trying to plead his innocence.

A Reasonable Man focuses on the diverse cultures and traditions that South Africa has and how one tries to justify the concept of a “reasonable man”. What is reasonable in certain cultures or contexts and how do we who are outside of these cultures understand this reason? The movie also looks at two individuals who are from very different backgrounds but share a personal battle that has some relation to each other.

Further Reading:

The Past is Very Much Part of the Present

http://constitutionallyspeaking.co.za/the-past-is-very-much-part-of-the-present/

The Construction of Eugene Marais as an Afrikaner Hero by Sandra Swart

Eugene Marais (1871 -1936) was instrumental to literature within South Africa and was also a scientist focusing on the behaviour of primates and ants. While not being as well known for his scientific work, he is hailed as the, “father of Afrikaans poetry”, due to his contributions to literature and the Afrikaans language (Swart 847). It is within this vein that Marais is represented as a great Afrikaner who was part of the Afrikaner nationalist movement. Marais is, however, also remembered as an Afrikaner rebel, a “dissident iconoclast” (Swart 847).

It is with these two different representations of Marais that Sandra Swart investigates Marais as a hero for the Afrikaans language and populace of South Africa in her article, The Construction of Eugene Marais as an Afrikaner Hero. Swart’s investigation into the construction of Marais’ image as an Afrikaner hero is done in three distinct manners.

Firstly, the article looks at how Marais has been portrayed within particular historical moments by, “[analysing] the changes that have occurred with reference to broader developments in South Africa”, (Swart 847). This is done through the exploration of the, “material changes within the socio-economic milieu”, with these changes essentially being the reason for Marais’ constant public image changes (Swart 847). Marais’ as an idol Afrikaner was vital to the cultural identity of the re-imagined Afrikaner nation, strengthening nationalist ideals and forwarding nationalism.

Marais being the first “Afrikaner poet”, filled the need for an Afrikaans poet, and is thus, “celebrated as a powerful figure in the establishment of the Afrikaans language and culture” (Swart 850).  Marais is difficult to categorise within the Afrikaans canon though, with his work spanning four poetic generations and finding his poetry within two schools of thought. The two schools of thought on his poetry are the Language Movement’s stable and the Afrikaans literary firmament.  

During, and after Marais’ death, his image was subject to change due to the socio-political context of the Afrikaans language struggle. It is with this in mind that Swart’s second manner of exploration into Marais’ image as an Afrikaner hero is grounded. The change in Marais’ image is traced within the projected self-image of the Afrikaner over the 20th century. It is almost entirely because of Gustav Preller, a long time friend and advocate of Marais, that his image as a "true" or "good" Afrikaner is established (Swart 855). Preller establishes Marais as the 'first poet' and through this establishment, creates the ground to mould Marais' image as a simple afrikaner, while ignoring Marais', "identification with decadence and aestheticism", as well as his, "cosmopolitan tastes and leaning towards morphine" (Swart 856).  Marais was portrayed to Afrikaner South Africans, and other South Africans, as to what an ideal Afrikaans individual would be, and this portrayal was often adjusted to what was needed over time, but it remains entrenched in the ideal of being a simple and 'good' Afrikaner.

Finally, Swart sets an exploration into the need for ‘alternative heroes’ in the ‘new South Africa’. Understanding that Marais’ image as an ‘Afrikaner rebel’ and someone who stood in opposition to, "the 'obscurantism' of Kruger",  is well suited for this need of an alternate hero (Swart 866). This secondary representation of Marais as a ‘dissident iconoclast’ is the reason for the fragmented meaning of his image. It is with this representation of Marais that he is used as a figure in the reinvention of the Afrikaner in  post-Aparthied South Africa, being now viewed as a, "genuine Afrikaner 'tragic genius'" (Swart 866). 

Works cited:

Swart, S. “The Construction of Eugene Marais as an Afrikaner Hero.” Journal of Southern African Studies 30.4 (December, 2004): 847-867. JSTOR. Web. 07 March 2011. 

For those interested in Gustav Preller, here is a link with a little more information on him:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Preller

Rousseau, Levaillant, Marais

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva, was an 18^th century philosopher and writer. Claude Levi-Strauss, a French anthropologist and ethnologist, called Rousseau's Discourse on the Origins of Inequality the beginning of anthropology. This was stated partly because of it's self-questioning stance and partly because “of its consideration of links between human and primate behaviour” (Glenn 62). Levi-Strauss sees Rousseau as the founder, while other researches argue that Rousseau can be seen as the first Enlightenment figure, supposing that there is a link between particular species, “the relation between apes and men” (Glenn 63). Rousseau tried to find the missing link between primate and man in his Discourse on the Origins of Inequality (Glenn 63). Rousseau speculated that travellers who claim to have seen primates that look like men might have been confused and seen animals instead of men, these travellers might have judged simply on external characteristics (Glenn 63). There are sections in Rousseau's Discourse that developed the idea that to move away from being savage to a more civilised state it involves “a complex economy of sensory, psychological and social losses and gains” (Glenn 64). This sense of lost capacities and possibilities influenced both Levaillant and Marias (Glenn 64).

The French explorer Francois Levaillant, an 18^th century travel writer, was a pioneering figure in South African ornithology, zoology, and ethology as well as in anthropology (Glenn 65). Levaillant worked from what he found in the field, he felt that Rousseau had a false and distorted view of the Hottentots. Levaillent attacks Rousseau's work and views of the Hottentots and he criticised Rousseau for “relying on second-hand accounts” from other writers (Glenn 66). However, Levaillant's self-justification in the “prière d'insérer” saw himself as agreeing with Rousseau's challenge in finding a “philosophy that travels” (Glenn 66). Levaillant seemed to describe African people without prejudice and shared another view with Rousseau, the idea of the “Noble savage” and the condemnation of civilization. Levaillant had a relationship with a Khoekhoe woman in Gonaqua called Narina, his relationship with her would be frowned upon and seen as social unacceptable in the later colonial period. “Levaillant's legacy to South African literature of the nineteenth century was generally as a political critic of colonialism” (Glenn 70). Levaillant was able to see the Hottentots and Gonaquois as completely human, this meant that he worked with “the conventions of classicism to depict black bodies as beautiful” (Glenn 70).

Eugene Marais, a South African poet, writer and naturalist, is well-known for his contribution to Afrikaans literature although, he is little less know for his contribution to science. His book, Souls of the Ape, “aspires to the high detached scientific tone,” which echoes Freud as Marais recounts various experiments he performed in hypnosis (Glenn 72). Marais' 19^th century reading of Darwin created a scale that put blacks closer to baboons and was inevitably racist (Glenn 72). His central concern of his theory of ethnology and anthropology was “the cost of the transition from savage man to civilised, animal to human” (Glenn 73). Marais saw that there was an inherent weakness in the stage of development and way of life for the Bushman (Glenn 73). It is ironic that in his chapter “Addiction and Depression” - Marais comments that the Bushman “may be closer to him, or the universal condition, than the cynical exploiters” (Glenn 74). Marais discovered the Waterberg Cycad which was also named after him (Encephalartos eugene-maraisii). Marais is also known as the first person to study the behaviour of wild primates.

The main theme in the late 19^th century literature “is the tension between high pretension and 'the horror' of primal drives and forces” (Glenn 75). Marais can be seen as being closer to Rousseau's work than Levaillant, in the sense of the movement of man from primate to savage (Glenn 75). Rousseau, Levaillant and Marais share different and similar findings in their work about the 'savage man'. It is interesting to note that although some saw the Hottentots as human, they were never seen as fully human.

Links:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Marais

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Levaillant

Works Cited:
Glenn, Ian. “Primate Time: Rousseau, Levaillant, Marais”. Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa, 18.1 (2011): 61-77. Print.

Olive Schreiner: 19th Century: The Men and Women's Club

The Men and Women's Club was a discussion group which challenged the norms for male and female relationships as well as the ideas of sexuality (Edwardian Promenade). Karl Pearson, a barrister, formed this club to have more focused discussions based on all subjects important to both sexes. The group formally started in 1885 with the aim for men and women to discuss subjects openly and freely (Ruth and Scott 146). Discussions regarding sexuality in Victorian England were very radical for the time, especially since these conversations were shared by men and women together. The culture of the Victorian time “refused middle-class women knowledge about their bodies while stigmatizing the prostitute as being 'outside' society” (Ruth and Scott 146). The club wanted to bring men and women together by finding an alternative split “between 'animal' and 'human' that characterised the dominant mid- and late- Victorian attitudes to sexual passion” (Ruth and Scott 146).

The club's first paper was from Pearson called “The Woman Question”, which was later reprinted, with changes, “in a collection of essays entitled The Ethic of Freethought” (Ruth and Scott 149). In the paper he focused on changes that would happen if women received access to education, professions and political representation (Edwardian Promenade).

Olive Schreiner, daughter of a missionary, was one of the most well-known female members of the group. Schreiner and Bryan Donkin joined the Men and Women's Club during the first year of it starting. They were more interested in the “non-recognition of female sexuality as a whole” (Ruth and Scott 150).

Schreiner was open in her “challenge of commonly-held conceptions of women sexuality” and argued against the notion that women have a weaker sexual instinct than men, observing that it was difficult to judge the 'days when women are under such control'” (Edwardian Promenade; First and Scott 150). Donkin on the other hand saw that Pearson “underestimated women's 'sexual passion' and overestimated the maternal instinct” (Ruth and Scott 150).

Schreiner's openness classified her as a 'free' woman, although she was pinpointed as having neurosis, which in Victorian times was a condition of a “woman seeking a sort of sexual freedom by denying her sexuality” (Ruth and Scott 151). Schreiner wanted to look for a theory of sexual evolution for women and in her personal relationship with Pearson was a way to show that she wanted freedom from sex or “the risk of being considered and treated as a sexual object” (Ruth and Scott 151-152).

One of the core issues of the Men and Women's Club was prostitution and they would probably have read literature about different Acts relating to prostitution (Ruth and Scott 157). The Contagious Diseases Acts, required that prostitutes in certain garrison towns and ports go for a full physical examination and detention in 'lock' hospitals (Ruth and Scott 157). The Club, however, struggled to fully define what a prostitute is but Schreiner felt that individual relationships sullied around prostitution (Ruth and Scott 157).

Topics discussed by the Men and Women’s Club were revolutionary and radical for the late 19^th century, during this time “long-held assumptions and social norms” were challenged by both men and women (Edwardian Promenade).

Works Cited:

First, Ruth, and Ann Scott. Olive Schreiner: A Biography. London: André Deutsch, 1980. Print.

Holland, Evangeline. Edwardian Promenade, 13 Dec.2009. Web. 2 March 2016.

Further Reading:

Edwardian Promenade

http://www.edwardianpromenade.com/love/the-men-and-womens-club/

The Olive Schreiner Letters Online

https://www.oliveschreiner.org/vre?page=295

Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer, (27 April 1820 - 8 December 1903), is best known for his theory on Social Darwinism, although he is also known for his Synthetic Philosophy and his ideas regarding Progress or the Law of Evolution. Spencer was an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian Era and is well known for coining the term, "survival of the fittest" in Principles of Biology (1864). While Spencer worked within a wide array of disciplines, and is associated with many theories, I will be focusing  solely on his theory of Social Darwinism.

Social Darwinism is a social theory that applies the laws of survival to a society, which is essentially the concept of adaptability and competition within a social context, and is used to explain the social struggle evident in society for existence. The idea of competition within a society rests on the basis that there is competition within an economic and political sense, as these two fields being integral in the progression of humanity. Essentially, Social Darwinism is used to describe social progress or evolution.

Spencer did not however, simply appropriate Darwin's biological ideas of progress or survival, (Natural Selection), but rather incorporated it into his preexisting synthetic philosophical system. Spencer's evolutionary ideas are based on Lamark's idea that organs are developed or diminished depending on use and disuse. this evolutionary mechanism is necessary to explain the social development of society, and more broadly, humanity. Spencer's idea regarding social evolution has direction and an endpoint and once it reaches an apex, it will achieve a final state of equilibrium. In this sense, evolution means progress, improvement, and eventually the perfection of the social organism, in this case being society.      

Within the coming weeks I will also try and provide more information on the influence that Herbert Spencer had on other academics, focusing specifically on Olive Schreiner and her literary work.

Follow these links for more information on Social Darwinism and Herbert Spencer. Another person of interest is Jean-Baptiste Lamark, who Spencer based his evolutionary ideas on. A link providing information on Lamark is also made available here:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer#Social_Darwinism

https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/sociology-1/the-history-of-sociology-23/spencer-and-social-darwinism-149-3119/

Gustav Fritsch's photographs taken on his travels to Southern Africa

These are a few of the photographs that Gustav Fristch took while travelling in Southern Africa. As I discussed in my "Gossip column" last week, Fristch took various photographs of individuals while on his travels in Southern Africa and these images below represent his "honorific" portraiture. His focus on the ethnographic-cultural aspect of these photographs are quite clear as he encouraged his subjects to wear their own accessories and ornamentation. Unfortunately, I was not able to get more of his "repressive" photographs, nor was I able to get much information on the subjects of his photographs, other than their names and that they ranged from converted native inhabitants, Khoi San and Xhosa individuals. Where I am able, I will provide more information on a subject next to a photograph. I hope everyone enjoys these photographs.       

                                     'Mickie, Gonna Hottentot, Harrismith'. Taken October 1864

                                                            'Cuenyane, Barolong Tribe'

                                    'Zazini, First Counsel of Anta, Windvogelberg. Taken in 1864'

                             'Boessek Bushman, Bain's farm, Orange Free State. Taken 8 April 1864'

                             'Carlo Bushman, Bain's farm, Orange Free State. Taken 8 April 1864'

        'Joh Nakin, Mosuto native teacher, Shiloh'. Taken between 1-3 February 1864'